Fig. 4

The cross-relationship between hypoxia, stemness, drug resistance, current research deficiencies, and potential treatment therapy. The interplay between hypoxia and stemness is intricate, and both elements play significant roles in influencing drug resistance. Current research in this field is constrained by several factors, including the absence of optimal biomarkers, insufficient investigation into associated mechanisms, and the necessity to identify more appropriate therapeutic targets. There exist targeted therapies aimed at addressing hypoxia and CSCs; however, the majority of these therapies are still undergoing clinical trials. Notably, the most promising interventions tend to be combined therapy. Abbreviation: CSCs, cancer stem cells; EMT, EMT, epithelial-mesenchymal transition; HIFs, hypoxia-inducible factors