Fig. 1

Major categories of therapeutic treatments for NSCLC. A Targeted therapies inhibit oncogenic receptor tyrosine kinases and their downstream signaling pathways, thereby suppressing tumor survival signals. B Immune checkpoint inhibitors, such as those targeting PD-1/PD-L1, B7/CTLA-4, and related pathways, restore T-cell function by reversing exhaustion, enhancing cytotoxic activity, and modulating the tumor immune microenvironment. C Bispecific and bifunctional antibodies simultaneously target molecules such as EGFR and MET, PD-1 and VEGF, or PD-1 and TIM-3, thereby reducing ligand-receptor interactions, promoting receptor degradation, and inducing antibody-mediated cellular cytotoxicity. D Antibody–drug conjugates deliver precise chemotherapeutic agents via cancer-specific antigen-targeting antibodies, enabling a bystander effect to eliminate neighboring cancer cells