Fig. 1

Neoantigens identification and their deriving sources. A The neoantigen prediction process follows a systematic three-step pipeline: Prediction involves identifying tumor-specific mutations based on patient HLA typing through tumor DNA, RNA, and protein sequencing using computational tools; Filtration ranks the predicted neoantigens by assessing features such as expression levels, the likelihood of being processed and presented on major histocompatibility complex (MHC), MHC binding affinity, and antigen specificity; Validation is carried out through experimental methods to confirm the ability of neoantigens to elicit specific T cell responses. B Neoantigens originate from several mechanisms, including genomic alterations (such as point mutations, gene fusions, and deletions), aberrant transcriptional events, alternative splicing or translation, and post-translational modifications. These mechanisms generate tumor-specific antigens that are absent in normal tissues, making them ideal targets for personalized cancer immunotherapies aimed at inducing precise immune responses. ELISpot, enzyme linked immunospot; SNVs, single-nucleotide variants; INDEL, insertions and deletions; ORF, open reading frame; lncRNA, long non-coding RNA